Estrelda Alexander’s Black Fire tells a compelling story of the Pentecostal Movement, specifically that of Pentecostal believers of African descent in North America. Like many Pentecostal historians, she begins by comparing the physical earthquake in San Francisco in April 1906 with the spiritual earthquake of the Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles in the same year. The reader is to be reminded of the words of God spoken by an ancient prophet: “I am going to shake the heavens and the earth, the sea also and the dry land. I will shake all the nations . . .” (Haggai 2:6-7). The birth of twentieth century Pentecostalism was indeed a profound shaking – a shaking of ecclesiastical structures, a shaking of socio-political sensibilities in North America, a shaking that would be felt in all the nations of the earth.
A Culture of Racial Violence. Early Pentecostalism was birthed in an era in which the United States would be haunted by two ghosts – the specter of Jim Crow and the Holy Ghost. Alexander offers glancing comments about the racial conflict of the period in which “terror lynching” was utilized to enforce racial segregation and white supremacy. During the years of 1877 through 1950 there were 4087 documented cases of terror lynching. During the early years of the twentieth century racial unrest would sometimes erupt into mass violence. The Atlanta Race Massacre of 1906, the Red Summer of 1919 in which there were dozens of race riots in cities across the United States, and the 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre exemplify the culture of violence of the period.
As the specter of Jim Crow provoked fear and chaos in the African descent community throughout the nation, the Holy Ghost was moving and shaking, calling forth black men and women to engage the mission of God in the reconciliation of humanity. It was precisely because of the cultural racial enmity that led W.J. Seymour to insist that love and racial reconciliation were the evidence of Spirit baptism. The “original sins” were hate and segregation; the remedy was love and reconciliation. The Holy Ghost overcomes the specter of Jim Crow. The emerging Pentecostal churches, fellowships, and networks struggled against deeply embedded cultural racism to embody a church for all peoples.
The Azusa movement, under the leadership of W. J. Seymour, was an interracial event – the Spirit was poured out upon all flesh. Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics worshiped and worked together. Likewise, the churches under the leadership of C. H. Mason consisted of white and black ministers. In spite of a culture of apartheid, early Pentecostals struggled to maintain a unity of the faith across racial boundaries. However, within a decade most Pentecostals self-segregated. Pentecostals of African descent most often established churches, networks, and denominations with black constituents.
Blacks in Predominantly White Churches. Some black Pentecostals found a church home in predominantly white churches – specifically the Church of God (Cleveland TN) and the Church of God of Prophecy, both groups profoundly affected by the vision of A. J. Tomlinson. There are implications that one of the causes of the Church of God schism of 1923, that led to Tomlinson’s removal as general overseer, may have been resistance to Tomlinson’s progressive policies of racial inclusion. This deserves further research. After the schism, the COGOP led by Tomlinson, made intentional efforts at including persons of African descent and Hispanics in all areas of ministry leadership. In the COG, Black and White Pentecostals were effectively segregated. The “colored work” of the COG was sometimes led by black men appointed by the white leadership of the COG; at other times white men led the colored work.
Efforts at Racial Reconciliation. In 1988, the Church of God General Assembly revised and expanded the practical commitments and included a section on “Correcting Social Injustices” which stated, “In all of our dealings, we must be sensitive to human needs (Luke 10:30-37; James 1:17) and guard against racial and economic discrimination” (Minutes 2018, 31). However, conversations about ways forward were lacking.
In 1995, a dialogue on racial reconciliation in the Church of God was initiated in Atlanta, Georgia under the leadership of two black ministers (Alexander, 264.) The conference was not sponsored by the denomination and participation was discouraged by denominational leaders. By invitation from Sam Ellis, I was a presenter at that conference. When I informed my state overseer of my intent to participate in the event, he strongly discouraged me and warned me of the political implications of participating in an unsanctioned meeting. My presentation was informed by Joseph’s reconciliation with his brothers – “Please, come closer to me” (Genesis 45:4). Other presenters included Estrelda Alexander, Rickie Moore, and T. L. Lowery.
Through the years, diversity in the Church of God has become more intentional. Wallace Sibley was elected as the first person of African descent to serve on the Executive Committee (2008); David Ramirez was elected as the first Hispanic, and the first delegate from outside the United States, to be elected to the Executive Committee (2016). In 2022, the Executive Council of the Church of God consisted of nine (out of 23) non-white members.
Decades later, another effort at reconciliation was initiated – the Bridge Builders Gathering in Tampa, Florida in September 2022. Like 1995, this was not a denominationally sponsored event. Rather, the event was sponsored by a small group of Florida pastors. The gathering had wide public support, even among church leadership. Every member of the Church of God Executive Committee attended and the general overseer was a keynote speaker.
Reflections. As a teen (1970s), I attended the Baxley, Georgia Church of God. The church sponsored a weekly youth prayer meeting in which more than fifty teens gathered in homes to sing and pray. When we invited our black friends from school to join us, the church council demanded that the youth prayer meetings cease. I served as pastor for more than thirty-five years in south Georgia. The most difficult issue to engage was racism. Some forty years after my church canceled the youth prayer meetings, the church is making progress, but the conversations remain difficult. It is my prayer that the Spirit of God will continue to move among God’s people so that the promise of Pentecost may be realized.
